Search: sida

Young Ringless Honey Mushrooms. Photo by Green Deane

The foraging is not done for the season. In fact we forage year round. There was plenty to find in West Palm Beach this past weekend. We started, unusually, with mushrooms. I usually don’t discuss mushrooms because I am not qualified to talk about most of them. But these were Ringless Honey Mushrooms, considered by some among the easiest to identify in North America.

Another edible fungi seen this season were Deer Mushrooms. Photo by Green Deane

While Honeys can come up any time of year they favor late fall and early winter though their “flushing” can vary. Some years I see them as early as October or as late as January. This year they seemed to come up in mid-November then a month later. Opinions on their edibility range from “leave them alone” to “choice.” The literature has reports of some people getting ill after eating them, although I have never met anyone with that problem. They reportedly can cause digestive upset, short in duration for some, long in duration for others. This should not be surprising because the same thing happens with wild edible plants and cultivated ones. I know a lot of people who, for example, cannot eat mangos.  There are also various ways to prepare Honeys. Some eat only the caps. Some parboil the caps first then cook them in other ways. Others insist they just need to be cooked longer than other mushrooms. As you can see there is a range, as there is with common food. Even if one doesn’t eat wild mushrooms (or wild plants!) it is still good to know what wild plans are. You can read about Ringless Honey Mushrooms here.

Tamarinds are used for flavoring. Photo by Green Deane

One of the reasons why I like to hold classes from North Carolina to South Florida is I get to see edibles ranging from a temperate forest to tropical. In West Palm Beach there is a good mix. We did see a Cashew tree — now out of fruiting season— as were the Mangos and the Jambuls. There were a few cashew shells around but you have to be careful as the shells are extremely caustic. Mahogany trees are interesting to look at but their “nut” is not edible. Tamarinds, however, do have edible pods. There are two at the class location, planted side by side. I’m not sure why. Pollination might be an issue, or they like company. They are wildly used as flavoring particularly in Asian sphere of influence. I didn’t notice them until one year I was there at the right time when they were fruiting. The tamarinds are also not far from what I call the Child-Proof tree, the Silk Floss. It is huge can very well armed with thorns and tiny edible parts one can never reach.

The Mahoe manages to have two different colored blossoms. Photo by Green Deane

The Seagrape tree was out of season but a relative, the Pigeon Plum, aka Dove Plum, did have some fruit to try. It’s a very strange foragable. While the dark-purple ripe fruit can be eaten off the tree it is astringent. But if it is dried and then rehydrated the fruit becomes delicious. So I usually pick dry ones off the ground and also what dry ones I can find on the tree then soak them in a little water. They are well worth the effort becoming non-astringent and sweet. Another odd tree we sampled was the Mahoe, this time a variegated one. Flowers, young leaves, and inner bark are all edible. What is odd about the tree is that its blossom are yellow in the morning. If they are not pollinated by the afternoon they will turn red to attract a different insect to do the job. The texture of the blossom also changes through the day, the petals, delicate in the morning become tough and papery by late afternoon. You can read about it here.

Sea Almonds are not related to real almonds but are tasty. Photo by Green Deane

One of my favorite south Florida trees is the Tropical Almond, also called the Sea Almond. It’s not related to the almond at all but the weathering fruit looks like a large unshelled almond hence the name. If you hit the fraying dry pod between two rocks — very hard to find in Florida — or on edge with a hammer you will hear a distinct sharp “crack.” You can then open the pod to find a cylindrical “nut” inside that is quite tasty. It’s not really a nut but it looks, breaks, chews, and tastes like one. You don’t have to roast them, raw is fine. However, I might collect some next time I am teaching there — mid-January I think — and I will try shelling and roasting some, just for the taste of it. You can read more about the Tropical Almond here.

Pursane’s nutrition is well documented. Photo by Green Deane

Among the dozens of edible species we saw in West Palm Beach were Juniper, Yellow Pond Lillies, Purslane, Blue Porter Weed, Yaupon Holly, Poor Man’s Pepper Grass, Hairy Bittercress, Cocoplums, Simpson Stopper, two species of Amaranth, Pandanus Grass, Dollar Weed, Water Hyssop, Spanish Needles, Oxalis, Perennial Peanut, Cattails, Hairy Cowpea, Traveler Palms, medicinal Sida, Pellitory aka Cucumber Weed, Banyans and their relative Rubber Trees.

The annual Urban Crawl is a free event.

The  Fifth Annual Urban Crawl was fun. We started at Panera’s in downtown Winter Park a little after 10 a.m., negotiated AMTRAK and then passing showers of the cold front. (One forages regardless of the weather because in real life if one is hungry one forages regardless of the weather.) The educational element of this particular Urban Crawl is the mixture of weeds, natives and edible ornamentals. Among the more odd things we saw was a limequat, which was a self-created hybrid and I think the only citrus with striped fruit. We did get to taste some out-of-season Podocarpus fruit, blue and sweet. At the east end of Morse Avenue there was a flowering Natal Plum. We managed to find one almost ripe fruit on it. And a short distance away an attractive specimen of a Weeping Holly loaded with caffeine and anti-oxidants. Our three-hour stroll took us along Lake Virginia near Rollins College where we found an abundance of Wild Cucumbers still setting. They are a nice, crunchy find. The cold weather will knock them out until April or so. There was also a lot of wild mint, water hyssop, and The annual crawl is free to anyone who shows up.

Foraging classes held rain or shine except for hurricanes.

Upcoming Foraging Classes:

Sunday, Jan. 3rd,Bayshore Live Oak Park, 2200 East Lake Road, Port Charlotte, FL. 9 a.m.

Sunday, Jan. 10th, Spruce Creek Park, 6250 Ridgewood Ave. Port Orange, FL. 9 a.m.

Sunday, Jan. 17th, 2016, Sunday, Nov. 15, Mead Garden, 1500 S. Denning Dr., Winter Park, FL, 9 a.m.

Sunday, Jan. 24th, George LeStrange Preserve, 4911 Ralls Road, Fort Pierce, FL, 9 a.m.

Sunday, Jan. 31st, Jervey Gantt Recreation Complex, 2390 SE 36th Ave., Ocala, FL, 9 a.m.

Sunday, Feb. 7th, Red Bug Slough Preserve, 5200 Beneva Road, Sarasota, FL, 9 a.m.

Sunday, Feb. 14, Mead Garden,1500 S. Denning Dr., Winter Park, FL, 9 a.m.

Sunday, March 6th, Florida State College, south campus, 11901 Beach Blvd., Jacksonville, 9 a.m.

Sunday, March 13th, Mead Garden, 1500 S. Denning Dr., Winter Park, FL, 9 a.m.

Saturday, March 19, Colby-Alderman Park: 1099 Massachusetts Street, Cassadaga, 9 a.m.

Saturday, March 26th, Dreher Park, 1200 Southern Blvd., West Palm Beach, 9 a.m.

Sunday, April 3rd, John Chestnut County Park: 2200 East Lake Road, Palm Harbor, FL, 9 a.m.

Sunday, April 10th, Wekiva State Park, 1800 Wekiwa Circle, Apopka, Florida 32712. 9 a.m.

Sunday, April 17th, Bayshore Live Oak Park, 2200 East Lake Road, Port Charlotte, FL. 9 a.m.

Sunday, April 24th, Wickham Park: 2500 Parkway Drive, Melbourne, FL 9 a.m

To learn more about the classes go here.

Green Deane’s DVD set

All of Green Deane’s videos are available for free on You Tube. They do have ads on them so every time you watch a Green Deane video I get a quarter of one cent. Four views, one cent. Not exactly a large money-maker but it helps pays for the newsletter. If you want to see the videos without ads and some ins lightly better quality you can order the DVD set. It is nine DVDs with 15 videos on each. Many people want their own copy of the videos or they have a slow service and its easier to order then to watch them on-line. They make a good Christmas or birthday gift. Individual videos can also be ordered. You can order them by clicking on the button on the top right of this page or you can go here. 

Do you know what this wild edible is? You would if you read the Green Deane Forum

Want to identify a plant? Perhaps you’re looking for a foraging reference? You might have a UFO, an Unidentified Flowering Object, you want identified. On the Green Deane Forum we — including Green Deane and others from around the world — chat about foraging all year. And it’s not just about warm-weather plants or just North American flora. Many nations share common weeds so there’s a lot to talk about, such as the one to the left. There’s also more than weeds. The reference section has information for foraging around the world. There are also articles on food preservation, and forgotten skills from making bows to fermenting food. Recent topics include: Small Herb, Solanum americanum, Winter Fruits in Sanibel, Are These Plants Related to Canavalia maritima? Lawn Weed, Wild Cucumber, Melothria Pendula, Edibility of Flowers From Landscape Hibiscus, Primitive Survival Class, Which Agave? Gallium or Carpetweed? Dichotomous Key: This made me smile, Foraging “For Real,” Spiky Fruits, Pine Cough Drops and Needles, Skullcap, Malodorous Plant? Another NJ Tree, and Maypops.  You can join the forum by clicking on the button on the upper right hand side of this page.

This is newsletter 188, and Merry Christmas! 

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Resembling a Hibiscus blossom, a young Ceiba tree blossoms in Orlando but it might be doomed to die in the winter chill. Photo by Green Deane

What people actually do with plants and what people write about what people do with plants can vary greatly. Ceiba’s (SAY-bah) are a good example. There are ten trees in the tropical genus. Various parts of various species are eaten variously which makes sense as the greater Mallow Family is generally user-friendly (unprocessed cotton seed oil and ephedrine in Sida being two exceptions.)  Thus it is difficult to state specifically  what is edible on each species Ceiba. The names can also vary in English from Silk Cotton to Kapok and numerous native and Spanish versions. The seed oil is edible on some species as are buds, blossoms, and young leaves on others. Even the wood ash can be used as a salt substitute. But some caution is called for as the trees have also been used to treat numerous medical conditions internally and externally. There are two species in Dreher Park in West Palm Beach where the winters are mild. I’ve seen two Ceibas planted in Orlando but they are only a few years old and not two yards apart, close for trees that can grow over 100 feet. Whether they will weather the ever-cooling winters is questionable.  I am guessing the Ceiba pictured above is perhaps C. speciosa, the Silk Floss Tree, which was my original guess. A reader helped ID it (thanks A.C.) You can read a little more about it here. 

A Partridgeberry showing where two blossoms were. Photo by Green Deane

Experience sometimes can get in the way of foraging. It happened to me recently in Gainesville.  Foraging is very much about context: Right plant, right place, right time. We were looking for wild cucumbers when a lad who came with his father found a red berry on a vine. My mind immediately popped up a botanical name, Mitchella repens. But a red flag went up immediately as well. Despite decades of foraging in Florida I’ve never seen the “Partridgeberry” in Florida. I usually see it in August in western North Carolina or eastern Tennessee.

Partridgeberry in North Carolina. Photo by Green Deane

As one might expect this Partridgeberry was not as robust as its kin farther north. The vine was thinner and the leaves not as dark green. But the configuration was right and more importantly the berry was right. This species produces two ovaries that fuse together so one berry has two blossoms. I could see the remains of that on the berry, a prime identification characteristic.  The berries are edible if not a bit bland. But it’s a new one to add to my local edibles list. And botanical maps do put it in many counties in the state. So the Partridgeberry was the right plant in the right place at the right time but I was also right in waiting until I got some confirmation from my foraging pals (thanks Josey.) I wanted to make sure they were seeing what I was seeing. It never hurts to ask. To read more about the Partridgeberry go here.

Ringless Honey Mushrooms. Photo by Green Deane

In Gainesville and Ocala recently I saw several bunches of Ringless Honey Mushrooms. The location was not usual per se  but the time of year is slightly off. While locally Ringless Honey Mushrooms can be found any month of the year, they usually favor the fall if not the early winter. Locally I expect to see them in mid-November. But they have been popping up all over the place a bit north of here as reported on three mushroom pages I have on Facebook: Florida Mushroom Identification Forum, Southeastern US Mushroom Identification, and, Edible Mushrooms: Florida. I even found “Honeys” growing on a Banyan Root in West Palm Beach in July, most out of character.

“Honeys” are cespitose, all growing from one point. Photo by Green Deane

Opinions on Ringless Honey Mushrooms vary, some call them not edible (as does David Spahr, a mushroom expert and author in Maine.) A mushroom expert and author in Florida, Dr. James Kimbrough, calls them good.  Some people eat only the caps, some eat the entire mushroom. Some parboil them first. Interestingly Ringless Honey Mushrooms were being sold for high prices this past weekend in a farmer’s market in Deland. My main hesitation regarding “Honeys” is what wood they are growing on. As they are intimately associated with the wood this worries me. In Gainesville one stump they were growing on was a Cherry Laurel, which is a laced with a chemical that upon digestion releases cyanide. I’ve also seen them growing on toxic Azaleas. I think I would also pass “Honeys” growing on a Juniper stump just because they might not taste that good. Ringless Honey Mushrooms on a Banyan roots would probably be all right as they are related to figs.

“Honeys” are among the easier mushrooms to identify. Photo by Green Deane

There are several main identifying characteristics of the Ringless Honey Mushroom to look for: They are cespitose, which means all growing from one point, they grow on wood, they have a white spore print — that’s extremely important — and they don’t have a fleshy ring around the stem.  I would add I also saw a fall flush of Chanterelles in Gainesville and a few edible Boletes and Lactarii in Ocala. To read more about the Ringless Honey Mushroom go here. 

Red Bays leaves are also often covered with insect galls. Photo by Green Deane

The other little mystery of two recent classes was whether the leaf I was examining belonged to a young Persia borbonia (Red Bay) or Magnolia virginiana (Sweet Bay) or even a Magnolia grandiflora.   Identification is usually not an issue as the adult leaves are quite distinct as are their scents. But younger leaves like some younger kids have no-yet committed features. Also it is rare to see a large Red Bay as they are dying by the thousands of a disease. The Red Bays have hair on the stem that is helped to ID them but the hair was sparse on the examples I had. Worse they had a little underleaf bloom that rubbed off. The Sweet Bay leaf is white on the bottom and the white rubs off. I finally decided in each case I had a Red Bay leaf because the underside was not white enough and the stem did have a little bit of hair. Some times distinct species can hide their identity. You can read more about the “bays” here. 

The Red bay Ambrosia Beetle

Incidentally that “disease” is Laurel Wilt, Raffaelea lauricola. It was introduced by an Asian beetle, Xyleborus glabratus, in 2002. The wilt is creeping its way southward from ground zero which was Savannah, Georgia. As one might expect Laurel Wilt is killing trees in the Laurel family including Red Bays, Swamp Bays, Sassafras, and Camphors — but not the Laurel Cherry which is in a different family. The wilt’s other target is avocados which explains why my avocado tree died a couple of years ago. It has killed approximately 7,000 commercial avocado trees in south Florida. Avocados were a $30 million business in the state in 2011 but has dropped down to just over $24 million. The infestation could also destroy 30% of the native trees in Florida with half a billion trees already dead. This also has impact on birds and animals dependent on those species. Lastly, what is a common vector for the beetle, that is, how does it get spread around? By people bringing infected firewood from home to burn on recreational trips.

Pellitory likes shady spots. Photo by Green Deane

The seasons are changing but they are also stretching. There have been several comments here about plants being found out of season (such as Ringless Honey Mushrooms in West Palm Beach in June.) Last year I wrote about finding Pellitory in July when it is usually gone by late spring. I start looking for Pellitory about six weeks from now but it found me in Jacksonville this past weekend. A sharp-eyed student in my foraging class asked what a small plants was. No doubt that it was Pellitory aka Cucumber Weed. There was only a small stand of it, and only a few inches high but there it was making an early-season debut. It demonstrates that foraging is not a static endeavor but always changing a little. Often it’s a botanical name change, sometimes a new edible ornamental. But seasonal changes are also possible requiring some alteration to the memory banks. Read more about Pellitory here. 

Upcoming foraging classes: This weekends class is in West Palm Beach and should be nice as the weather has cooled some. While there is some plant overlap from more northern areas of the state the mild winters in West Palm allows more tropical species to thrive and includes plants found down to at least the keys.

Foraging classes held rain or shine except for hurricanes.

Sunday, Oct. 25th, Dreher Park, 1200 Southern Blvd., West Palm Beach, 33405, 9 a.m.

Sunday, Nov. 1st, Bayshore Live Oak Park, 23000 Bayshore Rd., Port Charlotte, FL 33980, 9 a.m.

Sunday, Nov. 8th, John Chestnut County Park: 2200 East Lake Road, Palm Harbor, FL 34685, 9 a.m.

Sunday, Nov. 15, Mead Garden,1500 S. Denning Dr., Winter Park, FL 32789, 9 a.m.

Sunday, Nov. 22nd, Red Bug Slough Preserve, 5200 Beneva Road, Sarasota, FL, 34233, 9 a.m.

To learn more about the classes go here. 

Do you know if this species of Passiflora is edible? You would if you read the Green Deane Forum.

Want to identify a plant? Perhaps you’re looking for a foraging reference? You might have a UFO, an Unidentified Flowering Object, you want identified. On the Green Deane Forum we — including Green Deane and others from around the world — chat about foraging all year. And it’s not just about warm-weather plants or just North American flora. Many nations share common weeds so there’s a lot to talk about. There’s also more than weeds. The reference section has information for foraging around the world. There are also articles on food preservation, and forgotten skills from making bows to fermenting food. Recent topics include: Preserving Prickly Pear Bounty. When I was Five Years Old. Bearberry. Shrub? Zanthoxylum Americanum or something else? Lawn Weed. Tea, Salt and Amia.  An Odd Pine, Guini Wasps, Vine? 3 TX UFO’s, Shrub In High Desert, The Power of Play, Pandanus candelabrum, and Rainforest UFO. You can join the forum by clicking on the button on the upper right hand side of this page.

135 Eat The Weeds videos are available on DVDs.

All of Green Deane’s videos are available for free on You Tube. They do have ads on them so every time you watch a Green Deane video I get a quarter of one cent. Four views, one cent. Not exactly a large money maker but it helps pays for the newsletter. If you want to see the videos without ads and some in slightly better quality you can order the DVD set. It is nine DVDs with 15 videos on each. Many people want their own copy of the videos or they have a slow service and its easier to order then to watch them on-line. They make a good Christmas or birthday gift. Individual videos can also be ordered. You can order them by clicking on the button on the top right of this page or you can go here. 

This is weekly newsletter 179.There was no newsletter last week because on publication day the site disappeared and it took a while to restore it with a back up. Although one would not think so the site receives several thousand hack attempts daily. Sometimes that causes issues.

To donate to the Green Deane Newsletter click here.

Peperomia pellucida, used for salads or tea.

Snowy Corthell Hall, then at the University of Maine, where I spent most of my college years, photo by My View From Maine

I went to college in Maine where winter lasts from about November 1st to October 31st. I’m fond of telling people I love summer in Maine… both days of it. With the majority of the year cold and green plants scarce I made a lot of terrariums to have greenery around. I was always raiding Skillins Greenhouse in Falmouth for plants. (Nice to know some 40 years later — 2012 — they are still in business. Then again they opened doors in 1885.) And if you have never lived in snow you truly don’t realize how wondrous greenhouses are in the wintertime. Ten degrees outside and snow to your knees, warm and humid and earthy inside. Alive! Greenhouses were a source of joy and depression because they were beautiful and the promise of warm weather always months away.

Terry Skillins owner of Skillins’ Greehouses being interviewed on gardening tips.

A plant I used often in my terrariums for a tropical look and got at Skillins was Peperomia. I got the houseplant version and there’s about a thousand species in the genus, two of which are commonly eaten, Peperomia pellucida (Greenhouse Tea Plant, Shiny Bush) and Peperomia maculosa (Cilantro Peperomia… guess what it tastes like?) Most of the species are from the tropical Americas but 17 hail from Asia. Most have flower spikes similar to a Plantago but are more showy, think inverted catkin.

Peperomia pellucida is not a tall growing plant.

Peperomia maculosa is used as a spice similar to cilantro.

Historically the plant has numerous ethnomedicinal uses as an anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties. Peperomia pellucida has shown antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli. It is approved by the Philippines’ Department of Health for various uses. One of them is a decoction used to decrease uric acid levels (as a remedy for rheumatism and gout) and to treat renal problems. Boil 1 ½ cups of the plant with 2 cups of water for 15-20 minutes.) It is also used topically for skin disorders such as acne and boils. See Herb  Blurb below.

As for botanical name, Peperomia (pep-er-ROM-ee-ah) is two Greek words mashed together —  “Pepper” and “Same” — read it means “like peppers.” Pellucida (pell-LOO-see-duh) is Dead Latin for small and translucent, a reference to the leaves. Maculosa (mack-ule-OH’-sah) is Dead Latin for spotted or mottled, referring to small black dots on that species’ stems. Two related species that have edible leaves are Piper umbellatum and Piper stylosum.

Green Deane’s ITEMIZED Plant Profile: Peperomia 

IDENTIFICATION: Pereromia pellucida: Grows to one foot tall, stem initially erect, smooth, no hair, leaves fleshy and heart-shaped, smooth like candle wax, shiny light green, translucent, resemble pepper leaves but smaller. It has a very small bisexual flower growing from cord-like spikes from the leaf axils.Fruit as very small, round to oblong, ridged, green turning to black. One single seed with longitudinal ribs and ladder-like reticulation. The plant has a mustardy odor.

TIME OF YEAR: Year round in native habitat. Seasonal when temperatures are over 50/55 F.  Can bloom all year but favors the spring.

ENVIRONMENT: It likes damp woods, coastal plains, niches in rocks, plant nurseries and greenhouses. Best cultivated in a light, well drained rich soil with plenty of humus. Does well in shallow containers, likes terrariums. Coming from tropical rain-forest habitats, it prefers warm, humid conditions and needs a minimum temperature of 50 – 55°F  Besides it native range it can be found in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas (Houston area) and Hawaii; Mexico, West Indies, Central America, and South America. Peperomia maculosa is naturalized in Puerto Rico.

METHOD OF PREPARATION: P. pellucida: succulent leaves and shoots can be eaten in salads, used as a potherb, or cooked as greens. The leaves are also brewed into a tea. P. maculosa: The coriander-tasting leaves are used for seasoning usually with legumes and meats.

HERB BLURB

J Ethnopharmacol. 2004 Apr;91(2-3):215-8.: Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity of Peperomia pellucida (L.) HBK (Piperaceae). de Fátima Arrigoni-Blank M, Dmitrieva EG, Franzotti EM, Antoniolli AR, Andrade MR, Marchioro M.
Source: Laboratório de Farmacologia, Departamento de Fisiologia/CCBS, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, Campus Universitário, São Cristóvão, SE CEP 49100-000, Brazil.

Abstract: An aqueous extract of the aerial part of Peperomia pellucida (L.) HBK (Piperaceae) was tested for anti-inflammatory (paw edema induced by carrageenin and arachidonic acid) and analgesic activity (abdominal writhes and hot plate) in rats and mice, respectively. Oral administration of 200 and 400 mg/kg of the aqueous extract exhibited an anti-inflammatory activity in the carrageenin test, which was based on interference with prostaglandin synthesis, as confirmed by the arachidonic acid test. In the abdominal writhing test induced by acetic acid, 400 mg/kg of the plant extract had the highest analgesic activity, whereas in the hot-plate test the best dose was 100 mg/kg. The LD(50) showed that Peperomia pellucida (5000 mg/kg) presented low toxicity.
PMID:
15120441
[PubMed – indexed for MEDLINE]

Introduction: Peperomia pellucida (Linn.) HBK (Fam. Piperaceae), locally known as Luchi Pata, is an annual herb (1) that is widely distributed in many South American and Asian countries (2-5). The plant is refrigerant; its leaves have been used traditionally in the treatment of headache, fever, eczema, abdominal pains, and convulsions (1). Evaluations of  antibacterial, antiinflammatory, and analgesic activity of P. pellucida were reported in literature (2, 6-7). Isolation of antifungal and anticancer constituents from this plant was also reported (8-9). Although the leaves of the plant is used traditionally in the treatment of pyrexia and its antipyretic related activities (such as antiinflammatory and analgesic activity) were found experimentally, its antipyretic potential has not been explored yet. In the present study an attempt has
been made to establish the antipyretic effect of petroleum ether and ethyl acetate soluble fractions of ethanol extract of the leaves of Peperomia pellucida. Pyrexia or fever is caused as a secondary impact of infection, malignancy or other diseased states (10). It is the body’s natural function to create an environment where infectious agents or damaged tissues can not
survive (10). Normally the infected or damaged tissue initiates the enhanced formation of proinflammatory mediators (cytokines, such as interleukin 1?, ?, ?, and TNF- ?), which increase the synthesis of prostaglandin E2 (PgE2) near hypothalamic area and thereby trigger the hypothalamus to elevate the body temperature (11). When body temperature becomes high, the temperature regulatory system, which is governed by a nervous feedback mechanism, dilates the blood vessels and increases sweating to reduce the temperature. When the body temperature becomes low, hypothalamus protects the internal temperature by vasoconstriction. High fever often increases faster disease progression by increasing
tissue catabolism, dehydration, and existing complaints, as found in HIV (12). t
Turk J Biol
32 (2008) 37-41
© TÜB‹TAK
37
Antipyretic Activity of Peperomia pellucida Leaves in Rabbit
Alam KHAN, Moizur RAHMAN, Shariful ISLAM
Department of Pharmacy, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi 6205, BANGLADESH
Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Science, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi 6205, BANGLADESH
Received: 08.05.2007
Abstract: Antipyretic effects of petroleum ether and ethyl acetate soluble fractions of ethanol extract of the leaves of Peperomia pellucida (Linn.) HBK (Fam. Piperaceae) were investigated. Intraperitoneal administration of boiled milk at a dose of 0.5 ml/kg body weight in albino rabbit leads to pyrexia. Intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of petroleum ether and ethyl acetate soluble fractions of ethanol extract of the leaves of P. pellucida at a dose of 80 mg/kg body weight significantly reduced the elevated body temperature of rabbit. This antipyretic effect has been compared with antipyretic effect of standard aspirin and the solvent used . Peperomia pellucida (Linnaeus) Kunth, Nov. Gen. Sp. 1: 64. 1816.

 

Classic simple Greek Meal of “horta”

Dear Reader: I started this list years ago and have never had the time to finish it, that is, make separate entries with photos. But it has good information so I am going to post the work thus far:

Below is a complete ethnobotanical survey of wild plants people eat on Cyprus, or at least the Greek portion of the island. Many of these are also found in other countries around the world.

Greeks have a long history of foraging. A plate of cooked greens dressed with olive oil and lemon and accompanied with heavy bread is considered a proper meal. Another problem is an extreme proliferation of common names. Not only can different villages have different names for the same plant but different families within a village can have different names for the same plant, and have been using those different names for generations. Put three Greeks in a room and you have seven opinions. Perhaps no where was the binomial naming system more needed for plants than among those who speak Greek. I have extracted a list of the edibles mentioned in the study which follows.

Allium neapolitanum, Ammi majus, Apium nodiflorum, Asparagus acutifolius, Asparagus stipularis, Capparis spinosa, Capsella bursa-pastoris, Carduus argentatus ssp. acicularis, Carlina involucrata ssp. cyprica, Centaurea calcitrapa ssp. angusticeps, Centaurea hyalolepis, Ceratonia siliqua, Cichorium intybus, Crataegus azarolus, Crataegus monogyna, Crithmum maritimum, Cynara cardunculus, Cynara cornigera, Cynara scolymus, Echinops spinosissimus, Eruca sativa, Eryngium creticum, Eryngium glomeratum, Ficus carica, Foeniculum vulgare, Gundelia turnefortii, Laurus nobilis, Limonium sinuatum, Malva parviflora, Mentha pulegium, Mentha spicata, Muscari comosum, Myrtus communis, Nasturtium officinale, Notobasis syriaca, Onopordum bracteatum, Onopordum cyprium, Origanum dubium, Origanum majorana var. tenuifolium, Portulaca oleracea, Pistacia lentiscus, Pyrus syriaca, Rosmarinus officinalis, Scolymus hispanicus, Scolymus maculatus,  Silene vulgaris, Silybum marianum, Sinapis alba, Sinapis arvensis, Sonchus oleraceus, Taraxacum cyprium, Taraxacum hellenicum, Thymus capitatus,  Ziziphus lotus

Allium neapolitanum

Allium neapolitanum is also called the Naples Garlic, Daffodil Garlic, False Garlic, Flowering Onion, Naples Onion, Guernsey Star-of-Bethlehem, Neapolitan Garlic, Star, White Garlic, and the Wood Garlic. Native to the area it is considered an invasive species in California, Texas, Louisiana and Florida. It usually grows one to 1.5 feet high and has a large head of flowers.

Ammi majus

Ammi majus, has edible leaves and is used in salads. It is native to the Nile River basin and is also called Bishop’s Flower, Bishop’s Weed, False Bishop’s wWed, Bullwort, Greater Ammi, Lady’s Lace, Queen Anne’s Lace (dont’ donfuse with a Daucus carota) and Laceflower.

Apium nodiflorum

Apium nodiflorum, also called Helosciadium nodiflorum and Fool’s-water-cress is a flowering plant found in ditches or streams in western Europe. It’s a low-growing perennial with five-petaled blossoms and pinnate leaves that some think resembles watercress. It is not toxic but is easily confused with the Lesser Water Parsnip, Berula eracta, which is toxic.

Asparagus acutifolius

  Asparagus acutifolius and Asparagus stipularis, young leaves and shoots are cut, fried then mixed with eggs in an omelette.  The stems have much-branched feathery foliage which are actually needle-like modified stems. Flowers are bell-shaped in small clusters, greenish-white to yellowish, flowering in August through September, often after storms. It’s green berries are not edible.

Capparis spinosa

Capparis spinosa is quite familiar as its punget fruit are capers. Both the blossom  and the berry is used, the latter often pickled. Over the last 40 years the caper bush has been planted in other areas of Europe to increase commercial productions. The caper bush is a rupicolous species. Got to admit, I had to look that one up. It means growing on rocks quite understandable as many areas of the Mediterranean area are nothing but rock.

Capsella-bursa pastoris

Capsella bursa-pastoris grows not only on Cyprus but most of the rest of the world as well. Better know as Shepher’s Purse because of the seed shape it can be found in such places as Ocala, Florida where it is more common than its close cousin, Poor Man’s Pepper Grass. The entire plant is edible, the seeds as a pepper substitute, the leaves as a green, even the root has a ginger-like pepper flavor. Usually a cool-weather annual, it can grow nearly year round in some areas. Locally it shows up about Christmas and is gone by St. Patrick’s Day.

Carduus argentatus

 Carduus argentatus ssp. acicularis, or the Silver Thistle has laternating leaves and a basil roset with toothed or serrated leave and spines. Flowers are pink in April through May in distrubed habitats. It is found i Mediterranean woodlands, shrublamds, semi-steppe shrublands, desert and mountains. It is one of the flowers tentatively identified on the Shroud of Turin.

An Ethnobotanical Survey of Wild Edible Plants of
Paphos and Larnaca countrside of Cyprus

 Athena Della, Demetra Paraskeva-Hadjichambi and Andreas Ch Hadjichambis

Corresponding author: Demetra Paraskeva-Hadjichambi d.chadjihambi@cytanet.com.cy

Agricultural Research Institute, P.O. Box 22016, 1516 Nicosia, Cyprus

Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2006, 2:34 doi:10.1186/1746-4269-2-34

The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found online at: http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/2/1/34

Published: 4 September 2006

Abstract

An ethnobotanical survey of wild edible plants of Cyprus was carried out in two sites. Paphos vine zone and Larnaca mixed farming zone. These are among the areas in Cyprus whose inhabitants subsisted primarily on pastoralism and agriculture and therefore still preserve the traditional knowledge on wild edible plants.

The information was collected for three-year period, in the framework of the EU-funded RUBIA Project. Four hundred and thirteen interviews have been administered to 89 informants of various ages and background categories in 29 villages of Paphos site, and 8 in Larnaca site. A total of 78 species were recorded. Ethnographic data related to vernacular names, traditional tools and recipes have also been recorded. A comparison of the data collected from the two sites is undertaken. During this ethnobotanical research it was verified that wild edibles play an important role in Cyprus in rural people, however, it was realized that the transmission of folk uses of plants decreased in the last generations. The research of ethnobotany should be extended to other areas of Cyprus in order not only to preserve the traditional knowledge related to plants but to make it available to future generations as well.

Background

Even though covering only 9251 square kilometres, Cyprus is a country diverse in geography, climate, flora and fauna and rich in history and culture. Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean with a climate of wet, changeable winter and hot dry summers, separated by short spring and autumn seasons of rapidly changing weather. The vegetation of Cyprus is formed by typical Mediterranean types: the coniferous forest, the maquis, the garigue and the batha vegetation, whilst more localized communities occur around salt marshes, sand dunes, stone walls and mountain streams [1–4].

In Cyprus, about 2000 taxa were recorded as native or naturalized. From the native taxa, 143 were recorded as endemics [5–8]. References to the Cyprus flora and in particular to plants of economic importance go back as far as Homer. Cyprus’ plants are mentioned in the works of ancient authors such as Theophrast, Dioscourides and Pliny. Among Cyprus natural vegetation, a number of aromatic, medicinal and other useful plants are being exploited in their wild form [9].

The Cyprus diverse topography has permitted the survival of traditional knowledge related to vegetable resources used by locals as food. Even though, the consumption of plants gathered from the wild represented an important part of human nutrition in Cyprus, however, there are few ethnobotanical studies focused on wild edibles [10–13].

The present research was performed in the framework of the EU-funded RUBIA Ethnobotanical Project (Contract Number ICA3–2002–10023, 2003–2006). The perspectives of this research project were to record ethnobotanical knowledge related to traditional plant uses of wild and neglected cultivated plants for food, medicine, textiles, dyeing, handicrafts, and basketry, as well as to identify and evaluate the socio-economic and anthropological context in which these plants have been gathered and processed.

As a part of this broad study, wild food plants have been recorded in Cyprus and therefore the aim of this paper, is to present and analyze the wild food data gathered in the study areas of Cyprus during the years 2003–2005.

Methodology

Location and study area

Within Cyprus, two areas of study have been selected for this research project, according to the Agro-economic zones of Cyprus [14]. The decision was made in order to fulfil the criteria set by the EU-RUBIA Consortium for rural areas administratively, geographically and ecologically homogeneous with similar socio-economic context (Figure 1).

In both sites man transformed the natural landscape, in order to create opportunities for agriculture and stock raising. The floral diversity of the territories (especially in Paphos area) and the different ways in which their inhabitants have exploited the natural resources available have engendered a rich popular knowledge of the use of plants. Not ethnobotanical studies have been carried out in these regions until now.

Site one belongs to the 4^th phytogeographical zone of Cyprus, which has mostly cultivated or heavily grazed land in the North and numerous barren, eroded chalk or limestone hills in the South [3]. Is a part of Larnaca mixed farming zone and is an area of 155 km² consisting of 8 relatively big villages: Athienou, Avdhellero, Kellia, Livadhia, Petrophani, Pyla, Troulli, Voroklini, with in total 9545 inhabitants all of whom are autochthonous Greek-Cypriots, Greek speaking with Cypriot dialect. Cereals are the main crops planted, however the low irrigation of the area and the limited profitability of cereals compelled the farmers to concentrate mostly to livestock production.

Site two belongs to the 1^st phytogeographical zone of Cyprus, which is an area heterogeneous topographically, geologically and floristically, with much natural vegetation. It is mostly hilly, with deep narrow gorges, limestone or sandstone and with interesting areas of serpentine [3]. Site two is a part of the Paphos vine zone and is an area of 375 km² comprising 29 small villages: Axylou, Amargeti, Agios Demetrianos, Dhrinia, Dhrousia, Eledhio, Inia, Kallepia, Kannaviou, Kathikas, Kato Akourdhalia, Kelokedara, Pano Arodes, Panayia, Choulou, Kritou Marottou, Lemba, Letymbou, Melemiou, Miliou, Pano Akourdhalia, Phiti, Polemi, Psathi, Stroumbi, Theletra, Tsada, Yiolou, Pitagrou, with 9540 inhabitants all of whom are autochthonous Greek-Cypriots, Greek speaking with Cypriot dialect and Paphian idiom. Even though the region extends over a large area with many villages, there is a small number of inhabitants in each village and it is considered the less densely populated region of the country. The major crop planted is the grape vine followed by cereals [14]. Part of the western site of this territory has been suggested for inclusion in the Akamas Natura 2000 site.

These two sites are among the few areas in Cyprus whose inhabitants subsisted primarily on pastoralism and agriculture and therefore the older people of these areas still preserve the traditional knowledge on wild edible plants. The intensity of farming and the unavailability of off-farm job opportunities were closely related to the population engaged in agriculture. Today, most of the young people of both sites work in Paphos or Larnaca towns, leaving the agricultural and pastoral activities to be carried out by the middle-aged and older generations.

The interest of the present study was focused on wild food botanicals in the two sites. Attempts have been made to correlate and compare the plants recorded between the two sites as well as with other research work carried out in Cyprus and abroad.

A further aim of this research was to develop an ethnobotanical framework which could be the basis for further studies.

Methods

The present research was performed in the framework of the EU-funded RUBIA Ethnobotanical Project. The aim of this research project was the recording of ethnographical field data in order to develop a model for the re-evaluation of tools and technologies related to traditional uses of wild and neglected cultivated plants for food, medicine, textiles, dyeing, handicrafts, and basketry, as well as to identify and evaluate the socio-economic and anthropological context in which these plants have been gathered and processed. Eight study areas from the following countries were participated: Algeria, Cyprus, Egypt, Greece, Holland, Italy, Morocco and Spain.

The field methodological framework chosen for this research was that used in ethnobiology [15–17]. Field research was conducted by collecting ethnobotanical information during structured and semi-structured interviews with knowledgeable people native in each site territory. For each plant recorded one questionnaire was filled. Even though a structured questionnaire had to be filled direct questions were avoided. The basic information needed was taken during the conversation. Whenever possible the conversation was recorded on cassettes.

No special selection criteria were used in the choice of the informants because one of the aims of this work was to assess the breadth of popular heritage in the field of wild edible plants, knowledge which is widespread among locals. However, most of the interviewees were more than 60 years old, and belong mainly to families which have a strong connection with traditional agricultural activities.

Plant data and their related information were entered into a data base. The data acquired for each plant comprise the common local name, its uses, the part of the plant used and its preparation and administration processes. The way plants were collected, preserved, stored, prepared and used and the most relevant processes were photographed and video recorded.

Most of the mentioned plants were recognised by the villagers in-situ during short field walks and collected for scientific identification. Nomenclature followed mainly the Flora of Cyprus [3,4] and in some cases the Flora Europaea [18]. Herbarium specimens of most of the taxa cited were prepared and deposited in the National herbarium of Cyprus at the Agricultural Research Institute, Nicosia. Seed samples were also collected in the appropriate season for the most representative wild plants and deposited in the Cyprus National Genebank, at the Agricultural Research Institute.

Results/discussion

Four hundred and two interviews have been administered to 89 informants, of which 38 (43%) were women and 51 (57%) were men. Informants were between the ages of 48–82, with the average age of 66.

A total of 78 plants have been recorded. All these species are native and are gathered from the wild whilst 11 of them are cultivated as well (Ceratonia siliqua, Eruca sativa, Mentha spicata, Origanum dubium, Rosmarinus officinalis, Thymus capitatus, Laurus nobilis, Ficus carica, Myrtus communis, Portulaca oleracea, Crataegus azarolus). Comparing the plants recorded in the two sites it can be seen that 40 plants are common in both sites, 5 of the edible plants are used exclusively in Larnaca site and 33 plants are used exclusively in Paphos site. Within the two sites the dependency of rural people on agriculture was much greater in the Paphos vine zone than in Larnaca site. According to studies of 1983 [14] in Paphos site 71% of rural people were gainfully employed in agriculture and 29% in other occupation whilst in Larnaca site 43% of people employed in agriculture and 57% in other occupation. The closer relation of the indigenous people with their land probably resulted to the higher degree of usage of the natural plant resources in Paphos site. Additionally, many villages in Paphos site are near or within the Akamas Nature Reserve, a big area with many natural habitats and rich vegetation and therefore many of the wild edibles are gathered from the undisturbed shrublands of the area. Furthermore, the middle-aged generation of the Paphos vine zone, even though working in the town, they have relation with the countryside, still gaining profits from their grapes, and therefore still preserve some of the TK of their parents.

The survey of wild edible plants of Paphos and Larnaca countryside is the first study in Cyprus which has followed ethnobotanical methodology, recording not only a species list but ways of gathering, storage, preservation, preparation processes, common and traditional recipes and therefore the comparison of our data with previous studies is not possible. However, an attempt was made in order to compare only the species list of wild edibles recorded in our two study areas with the list of edible wild plants of the Cyprus Flora published in 2000 which enlisted 57 edible species from all around the island [13]. From the comparison was revealed that 47 plants were recorded in both species lists, 29 wild edibles were reported for the first time in our ethnobotanical study and 10 species were recorded only in Savvides’ list and not in ours.

All the plants recorded are presented in Table 1 with the indication of scientific name, vernacular name, family, plant part used, type of preparation, site recorded, number of records and herbarium specimen number.

Most used plants

The recorded plants belong to 31 different families. Asteraceae was with difference the most frequently encountered botanical family with 20 taxa, whilst Apiaceae and Brassicaceae follow with seven taxa, Lamiaceae with six and Boraginaceae is represented by four taxa. The other 26 families have less representation between one to three taxa each. Most of them are big families with many representatives in the Mediterranean region, some of which are very common plants. The data of this study confirm that people tend to use preferably the plants that are easily available to them excluding of course, those that are toxic or noxious. As was affirmed by other publications as well [19–22], the more common a plant (family or species) is in an area, the greater is the probability of its popular use. As for the most known and used species 13 of them were cited 10 times or more. The food utilization of Centaurea hyalolepis, has been reported by 18 informants, followed by Silene vulgaris (17 citations), Capparis spinosa (16 citations), Thymus capitatus (16 citations), Asparagus acutifolius (15 citations), Malva parviflora (14 citations), Scolymus hispanicus (13 citations), Eryngium creticum (12 citations), Foeniculum vulgare (11 citations), Onopordum cyprium, Carlina involucrata ssp. cyprica and Portulaca oleracea with 10 citations each. A high number of plants (49 out of 78) have been recorded by at least three independent informants, so that they follow the reliability criterion of Le Grand and Wondergem [23] and would be particularly interesting in view of further studies [22].

At this point it should be noted that 40 of the edible plants recorded are used exclusively for food. Some other plants have two or more uses and they appear in different categories as well. As can be seen in figure 2, 37 (30+4+3) plants have been recorded to be used for food as well as for medicine.

This overlap indicates the close relationship between health and food. A good example to this is Origanum dubium. The origan, locally called “rigani”, is one of the most commonly edible plants used and many traditional recipes were recorded for its use as a condiment such as in recipes of roasted meat, as a scent in kebab, and is added as a scent in a traditional recipe, called “tsamarella” which is made from salted goat meat. It is also considered one of the most commonly used medicinal with about six different recipes, against flu, cold, as antipyretic, anti-stress, for stomach-ache and good digestion. These plants (Origanum dubium, Thymus capitatus, Laurus nobilis, among others) are often used in folk medicine as digestive, so it may be that their presence in these often heavy dishes is not only a culinary but medicinal, to increase the digestibility of the cooked food [19]. Overlapping between foods and medicines is quite well known in traditional societies [24–26] and represents an often neglected field in ethnopharmaceutical research.

Plant supply/availability throughout a year

Most of the plants are collected in wild populations nearby the places where the informants live. Occasionally there is a small-scale cultivation in their home gardens (Origanum dubium, Myrtus communis, Crataegus azarolus). Some plants which were very much appreciated and frequently consumed in the past are now considered as weeds and even though have been mentioned they are only rarely eaten; in the territories studied this is the case of Sinapis alba and Sinapis arvensis. Sinapis spp. are still eaten in other areas of Cyprus [13].

Among all the edibles, four endemic species of Cyprus were recorded. The presence of endemic species illustrates the fact that the informants have a deep knowledge of their environment, since the three of them are not very abundant and can be found only in certain areas. For example, the endemic subspecies Carlina involucrata ssp. cyprica and Centaurea calcitrapa ssp. angusticeps are used only from the inhabitants of specific villages in Paphos area whilst the endemic Origanum majorana var. tenuifolium, which is used like common oregano, can be found only in a shrubland area of the Akamas National Park. The endemic species Onopordum cyprium, is used both in Paphos and Larnaca site and is a very common plant (Figures 6 and 7).

One of the favourite edibles of the recent past, Gundelia tournefortii, known by locals in Paphos area as “silifa”, is under threat since it has become rare and it can not easily be found. This plant has been included in the Red data book of Cyprus Flora as Endangered because its populations have been eliminated [27].

Most wild species are gathered from waste and uncultivated land (48%) or from shrubland (17%) and by the roadside (12%). Eight percent (8%) of wild edibles are grown within or around the cultivations and therefore can be collected from the cultivated land of grape vines in Paphos and Cereals in Larnaca,

In the local Cyprus cuisine, greens and wild plants in general, have an important role. According to this study during winter, it is possible to use 49 wild plants, and this number can increase to 56 during spring. The number then decreases and in May many edible greens have bloomed and the leaves have become tough, leaving only about 16 still edible. During summer some fruits of wild trees are edible.

From these plants only 15 can be purchased throughout a year from local markets and stores (Capparis spinosa, Ceratonia siliqua, Cynara cornigera, Eruca sativa, Mentha spicata, Origanum dubium, Rosmarinus officinalis, Pistacia lentiscus, Silene vulgaris, Thymus capitatus, Laurus nobilis, Ficus carica, Myrtus communis, Portulaca oleracea, Crataegus azarolus). These plants are partly collected from the wild and partly coming from small scale cultivation. Some of them are used as a condiment, some others are consumed as greens in salads or they are used for the preparation of cooked recipes. The other 66 taxa people should gather only from the wild by themselves (Figure 3).

As regards the tools used for gathering, 44% of the plants are gathered simply by hand while 37 % are gathered by a knife. Other tools such as a big knife (9%), a traditional big curved knife called “skylloua” (7%) and scissors (3%) are also used.

4.3 Plant parts

Within the edible plants, leaves (29%) and stems (25%) are the plant parts most widely used. Fruits and aerial part follow with 16% and 15% respectively (Figure 4).

Among the recorded plants thistles are very popular as wild edibles of Cyprus. The young stems of 16 wild plants are used. Eight of them are used in both sites (Centaurea hyalolepis, Scolymus hispanicus, Scolymus maculatus, Onopordum cyprium, Eryngium creticum, Cynara scolymus, Echinops spinosissimus, Notobasis syriaca, while seven of them are used exclusively in Paphos site (Centaurea calcitrapa ssp. angusticeps, Silybum marianum, Cynara cardunculus, Carlina involucrata ssp. cyprica, Carduus argentatus ssp. acicularis, Gundelia turnefortii, Onopordum bracteatum) and one of them is used exclusively in Larnaca site (Cynara cornigera). These plants can be gathered from January to March, and their young stems, cleaned of spines, are used in most cases boiled with legumes or fried.

Models of consumption

The edible plants are consumed in many different ways. Some of them need only the washing of the part of the plant to be eaten, and some others imply a more or less complex preparation process (Figure 5).

Raw

Many plants (26%) with edible leaves, roots or fruits are eaten raw. Many of them are used in salads. This is the case of Portulaca oleracea, Ammi majus, Apium nodiflorum, Taraxacum cyprium, Capsella bursa-pastoris, Foeniculum vulgare, Mentha pulegium which are usually dressed with oil, and vinegar or lemon. Some others like Sinapis alba, Sinapis arvensis, Taraxacum hellenicum, Cichorium intybus, Nasturtium officinale, Sonchus oleraceus, Allium neapolitanum are eaten fresh with olives, onions and bread. On the other hand, many edible fruits are directly consumed as desserts, in fresh form (Pyrus syriaca, Crataegus azarolus, Crataegus monogyna, Ziziphus lotus). The existence of Limonium sinuatum in this group is remarkable, because it is the first time that this plant is cited as a food plant in Cyprus [13] even though has been listed as an edible for the Mediterranean in Bodrum area of Turkey [29].

Cooked plants

A number of wild plants (59%) are eaten cooked. Most of them, 27 %, are eaten boiled, 17% are eaten boiled alone and 10% are eaten boiled with legumes, especially with broad beans. In both cases they are garnished with olive-oil and lemon. The most popular plants used as boiled are: Centaurea hyalolepis, Scolymus hispanicus, Carlina involucrata ssp. cyprica, Malva parviflora. However, some more elaborated preparations were recorded. Some plants are consumed fried (9%) and especially in an omelette. The young shoots of Asparagus acutifolius, Asparagus stipularis and the young leaves of Silene vulgaris, which are the most typical examples in both sites studied, are cut, fried and mixed with the eggs to make the omelette. Asparagus acutifolius is prepared in the same way in some parts of Italy [28] the Iberian Peninsula [19] and in Bodrum area of Turkey [29].

A number of wild edibles (17%) is used in traditional recipes. It is worth mentioning that very popular among traditional recipes in Cyprus are home made pies, called in general “pittes”. Eleven plants are used for making traditional pies. First, dough is made from flour, water and salt and then it is used for making small pies. Some times the pies are filled with the boiled or fried leaves (Beta vulgaris ssp. maritima, Papaver rhoeas, Silene vulgaris, Rumex pulcher) along with rice or “pourgouri” (like couscous) and spices. Some other plants are used as a scent in the pie (Foeniculum vulgare, Mentha spicata). In other cases fruits raw or preserved are used as the main filling of the pie (Pistacia lentiscus, Pistacia terebinthus, Ficus carica). Pies are cooked in the oven. Wild plants can also be a basis for a soup, the most famous of which is the so-called “molochosoupa” (malva soup), made with Malva parviflora. Some plants are often cooked in a traditional recipe called “yiachni” meaning, fried with onions and then tomato juice is added. Finally, plants are sparsely a condiment or the complement of meat stews as occurs with Cynara cardunculus, Cynara cornigera and Gundelia tournefortii.

Preserved plants

A number of plants are gathered and preserved to be stored and consumed all year round. Many plants which are used as a scent are dried and stored in plastic bags, plastic bottles or glass vessels and therefore used all year round. Nine plants (10%) are used to condiment stews, soups, pies or other dishes and traditional recipes. The most popular aromatic plants are Origanum dubium, Mentha spicata, Rosmarinus officinalis, Laurus nobilis, Thymus capitatus, Origanum majorana var. tenuifolium, Foeniculum vulgare. These plants add a distinct flavour and aroma to pies as well as to meat stews. Rosmarinus officinalis is used in a traditional fish recipe called savoro.

Some other plants such as Capparis spinosa, Crithmum maritimum, Eryngium creticum, Eryngium glomeratum and Muscari comosum, are preserved in vinegar and eaten like appetizer with several kind of food. Fruits of several wild trees are used for the preparation of jams and marmalades such as Pyrus syriaca, Crataegus azarolus and Crataegus monogyna.

Many tools used in processing were recorded. The five tools more often recorded are: “Madratzi”, a traditional wooden long tool for opening pies, “Chti and Chtocheri”, a traditional copper pot used for pounding, “Chartzi”, a traditional copper pot used for boiling, “Satzi”, a metal hot plate used for cooking pies, “Koumna”, a traditional jar used for storage and “Gastra”, an earthen vessel used for storage.

Conclusion

This study carried out in two sites of Cyprus showed that the habit of using edible wild plants is still alive, but is “ageing”. The consumption of wild plants is done as an addition or a complement to a diet of cultivated food plants. During this ethnobotanical research it was verified that even though wild edibles has been playing an important role in Cyprus since ancient times, it was realized that the transmission of folk uses of plants decreased in the last generations and surely in urban areas the knowledge is very much delimited. Almost all the interviewees, were past retirement age, and agreed that today far fewer wild plants are consumed than in previous decades. The people of the younger generation we met during the field survey declared that “it is much easier and less time and effort consuming to buying greens, fruits or spices from the markets, no matter if they are cultivated or even imported, instead of running to the fields. Since even though, going to the wild it is not easy to recognise the edible plants and in case can identify some of them they are not familiar with the way plants should be processed”. It is obvious that the younger generation has all but lost the TK necessary to identify, gather and process these species, while many middle-aged informants perceive the consumption of non-cultivated vegetables in a negative way, often as a symbol of poverty of the past.

The data of this study agree with those from other authors [30,31,19], and confirm that non cultivated edible plants deserve to be more thoroughly surveyed from an ethnobotanical and economic-botanical viewpoint, as a basis for agricultural, nutritional and other studies which may lead to the use of some new or renewed food plants. When studying wild food plants from this point of view, we must give recognition to the contribution of rural societies to the diversification of the sources of human nutrition and work for the reappraisal of folk knowledge on plants and their uses [32,33,19].

Our study, as well as other studies in a Circum-Mediterranean level [34,35], demonstrated that there is an urgent need for documentation of TK related to the intangible cultural heritage concerning traditional plant uses, and that such a heritage is much more complex that we may think. The ethnobotanical research should be extended to other areas of Cyprus in order not only to preserve the traditional knowledge related to plants but to make it available to future generations as well, showing the way for authenticity, simplicity and revival of that which is genuine.

All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the European Commission-Research Directorate General, for financing this project and the Agricultural Research Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus, for the overall support. Thanks are also due to all the informants who contributed to this study with their valuable traditional knowledge. Special thanks are addressed to the scientists Ms Natasa Pappouli as well as to the technical staff of the Agricultural Research Institute for their assistance.

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Groundnuts, a weak vine with maroon pea flowers

Groundnuts: Dig ’em

I will never forget the first time I dug up Apios americana, groundnuts. I got poison ivy for the first time, too. Oddly it showed up in the crook of one elbow, then the next and then behind both knees. Fortunately it took 24 more years before I got my second case of poison ivy.

Unmistakeable tubers on a string, note 6 inch trowel

Groundnuts were highly esteemed by the first European colonists.  But, their two-year growth cycle kept them from becoming a commercial crop, and now only foragers enjoy them though there is some interest in going commercial with them and they have been under agricultural study. Groundnuts are a prime wild edible that’s hard to misidentify. They’re like beads on a string except they are are larger and farther spread out, with the spacing irregular.  The “string” can also branch off. But, once you find the string you are on to them and all you have to do is dig them out of the other roots.  To find them I look for the vine climbing bushes and trees. It is unmistakably in the pea family. The vine can grow up to 20 feet a year. It’s thin, about an eight of an inch through, covered with fine hair, and tough for its size.  The leaves are pinnately compound, sometimes folded in the midrib, and have three to nine two-inch leaflets with no teeth (five leaves are the most common.)  The flowers are lavender to brown and fragrant, similar to lilacs some say, some say violets. Franky I think their aroma is not pleasant. When in blossom the vine is unmistakable between the color and shape. And of course, the root arrangement makes it nearly impossible to misidentify. Incidentally, it is the preferred plant for the Silver-Spotted Skipper so if you can recognize one of those, follow it.

Groundnuts are usually egg size

The flowers are edible raw or cooked and the seeds are edible cooked, shelled first. Some writers say the tubers are edible raw but that only tells me they never tried to eat one raw, or coped with the gas that produces. Groundnuts have a bitter latex in them and should be cooked first. They also have some “anti-nutrition factors” including protease inhibitors which cooking neutralizes. I prefer to boil them first and then use them otherwise, such as for frying. Groundnuts definitely taste better when they are hot. Their texture and flavor degrades as they cool though they can be warmed up again. Groundnuts can be pea size to baseball size, smooth or lumpy. Most of the ones I find look like dark brown lumpy eggs. First year groundnuts are light yellow to reddish brown, and small. Second year, larger, darker, coarser. All are edible and peel like a tough potato. Groundnut also contains genistein, a known anti-carcinogenic compound. The Indians made a plaster out of it (cooked) for external cancers.

Boiling can burst the groundnut

The groundnut was a very important food for the Indians. Some mixed it with acorns. Each tribe had a different related name for it. The Powhtan called it ouhpnhhauk which phonetically became ohpen. The Delaware Indians called it hopenis, the Fox, ahpenya, the  Menomini, ophen,  the Ojibwa, oppin, the Penobscott, ppan (that is not a typo) and the Shawnee peneeakee.  Some French-speaking Canadians still call it penacs.  In fact, Sag Harbor on Long Island got its name from groundnuts. The local Indians, the Metoac Algonquins, abandoned the theme of the rest and called them sagabon. It was also called Indian Potato from about 1626 on, along with many other roots. Then it was Indian ground nut, then groundnut and by 1787, Apios americana.  Apios (AH-pee-os) is Greek for pear, because they can be slightly pear-shaped, and americana (ah-mer-ree-KAY-na) means American.

Groundnut distribution map

The groundnut grows throughout eastern North America west to Colorado. It likes crowded wet areas, usually near rivers, streams, and lakes. If you see Elderberries there is a good chance there are groundnuts there. Poison Ivy also likes that environment so beware. They can be dug any time of year, and are usually just under the surface. Start where the vine enters the earth near a bush. That’s usually where the largest tubers are, but that is not always true, and roots can crisscross like cattail roots do. First year tubers peel easily, second year are more stubborn. Cut out any dark spots. Also look for exposed ground nuts after river flooding.  In Northern states they come out in June/July and are gone by September. Here in Florida they are flowering by late spring and carry on until late fall.  In fact, the first time I found one I was wandering around a stream and smelled an interesting fragrance and saw the ruddy blossom. That exact spot is now covered with a huge house.

Groundnut has long pea pods

The tubers can be up to 17% protein and have similar amino acids to beans, the predominant amino acids being aspartic acid and glutamic acid. The seeds can have as much as 25-30% crude protein. The favor to me is like a yam (Dioscorea not Ipomoea) with the texture of boiled turnip. Many, copying botanist Merritt Fernald from a book older than me, Gray’s Manual of Botany, report it has a turnip flavor. I think that is an exaggeration, but I can understand why they say that. Once boiled groundnuts can be used like potatoes but it is not a potato flavor nor does it have the starchiness of a potato. I enjoying slicing up boiled A. americana and frying them. Boiled then roasted groundnuts can be ground into a flour.  As always, try a little first and make sure it agrees with you. Some people have a bad reaction to the groundnut, causing them to lose fluids from both ends. I suspect that comes from under cooking the latex or an allergy. Be careful. Try a little first.

Groundnut seeds

One warning, some people have eaten groundnuts for years with no problem and then have a reaction to it. It is not common but it does happen. A few, perhaps five percent, have an immediate reaction to it. Whether it is an allergy or the way the groundnut is grown is not known. So, be careful.

There is actually an Apios in China and two more in North America. There used to be more here but botanists think most are a variation of the A. americana. The other one is A. priceana. It likes open hardwoods forests, rocky, drained soil, and only grows one large root and has pink to white flowers. Called “traveler’s delight” is is found sporadically in Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky and southern Indiana. Named after Sarah France Price, its discoverer, it is “endangered” because of loss of habitat. Please don’t eat it should you find one. (I have two videos about the groundnut. Here’s the first one, and the second one. )

Milk Pea, Galactis spp., not edible

One word of caution: Don’t confuse the groundnut with the non-edible Milk Pea. Our local our Milk Pea, Galactia elliottii, has leaflets of five to nine though five and seven are common like the groundnut. However the Milk Pea likes dry ground, usually pinelands or open sandy soil. More so the Milk Pea has white flowers, sometimes tinged with pink. Its leaves also have round tips whereas the Groundnut’s leaves are pointed. There are 11 different species of Milk Pea, many of them are difficult to tell apart, some with pink blossoms and purple flowers. The most common milk peas grow from Texas to Florida and north to New York and Kansas. Also don’t confuse it with Vigna luteola, the Hairy Cowpea, which has leaflets of three and yellow blossoms. However the Hairy Cow pea blossoms and seeds can be eaten cooked.

If you want to grow ground nuts they can be started from seed or tuber. Oddly, while one finds groundnuts in water-logged soil they grow best under cultivation in well-drained soil. To quote Purdue’s new crop proceedings of 1990:

“Most of the research involving cultural practices has been directed towards developing techniques to screen large numbers of plants. Direct-seeding has presented problems. Seeds may take 10 to 30 days to germinate. Seedlings are small and early seedling growth is not vigorous. Seedling death, presumably from insects or diseases, has plagued this technique for starting apios. The most satisfactory method has been to start plants in peat pellets. After germination, when the shoots begin elongation, the plants are pinched back to the first leaves. This prevents the plants in a flat from twining on each other, allows for better root development prior to planting, and permits plants from slower germinating seed to reach sufficient size to transplant. However, pinching back carries a potential risk of spreading disease among the seedlings. Weak seedlings can be discarded at this stage.

Tubers are planted intact. The buds that give rise to the shoots and rhizomes occur at the distal end of the tubers. The potential of dividing tubers into sections prior to planting needs evaluation. Generally the larger the tuber, the more rapid the early growth.

Seeds may be harvested from the time the pods first begin to dry. If left on the vine too long some pods will shatter  Tubers are harvested after frost. Since most of the plants are different (originating from seeds), the tubers are harvested with a shovel to insure that genotypes can be evaluated individually. Fortunately, tubers can remain in the soil for extended periods without rotting even under water-logged conditions, thus allowing an extended harvest period.

Although apios in its native habitat is found growing on water-logged and acidic soils (Reed and Blackmon 1985), observations under field conditions indicate that apios grows best on well-drained soils. A pH less than 5 or as high as 8 may also be detrimental to growth. Adequate moisture is important, but excess moisture encourages longer rhizomes.”

Groundnut and Olive Stew

8 to 16 oz boiled groundnuts

one can or about 16 oz olives (California or Kalamata, reduce salt if using Kalamata olives.)

One can or about 16 ounces chopped tomatoes

One large onion chopped

Garlic to taste, I add several whole cloves.

Broth or water to cover. If you use commercial broth compensate for the added salt.

Olive oil for flavoring, approximately 1 tablespoon, and pepper to taste

Optional: One lamb shank or about 12 ounces of meat. Cuts that respond to slow cooking are the best

Salt to taste

First cook large-cut groundnuts in a lot of water until done, about 40 minutes. Drain. Put all of the ingredients into a pot and cook until done. If not adding meat, cook until the flavors marry, usually about an hour on medium heat. If cooking with meat, cook on low heat until it is tender, two or three hours.  Serve with hearty bread and red wine.

 Green Deane’s “Itemized” Plant Profile

IDENTIFICATIOIN: Climbing vine to 20 feet,  pinnate leaves with 3-5-7-9 leaflets about two inches long, five leaflets is the norm. The flowers are red-brown to purple, very fragrant, pea-like wings and keel. Seeds in a pod. Roots like beads on a string.

TIME OF YEAR: In most climes blossoms in summer, sets fruit all the time. In Florida blossom sooner and sets longer.

ENVIRONMENT: Where you find Elderberries you can find groundnuts. They like the moist soil near streams and bodies of water, places usually populated with poison ivy and mosquitoes.

METHOD OF PREPARATION: Peel and boil like you would a potato then use like a potato, or slice raw and fry. But they must be cooked for raw they can be bitter and contain latex.  Do not cook in an aluminum pot. Beans are edible when shelled and cooked. Rat studies show they thrive far better on cooked groundnuts than raw groundnuts. Tubers can be stored up to 15 weeks in the refrigerator without any significant loss of quality. I prefer to boil them first and then use them otherwise, such as for frying.

 HERB BLURB

Caesar Weed’s most edible part, the blossom

Urena Lobata: Cash crop to noxious weed

Once it was an invited money-maker, now it is a hunted money spender: Caesar weed, cash crop to noxious weed.

We have often discussed what is a weed, and what is a noxious weed. Many “weeds” were food for previous generations, and some noxious weeds were valuable plants until technology moved on. Such is the story of the Caesar Weed.

Caesar Weed, Urena lobata, is in the mallow family and was imported to Florida for cordage a little prior to 1882, which makes sense; its cousin is cotton. Caesar weed is a good substitute for flax and jute and was at one time an important crop, still is in Brazil where it is called Armina Guaxima or Armania fiber.  It’s also called Congo Jute. Now it‘s a “noxious weed” in Florida because it is not used anymore and spreads easily. While it grows  happily river side it can grow on dry land with enough rain.

If you remember, the foraging phrase is all mallows are edible in some way, except the cotton (it’s oil is edible after processing.) The Caesar Weed is one of those mallows on the cusp of edible/not edible. As a food, Caesar weed is not high on the list. It is a “famine food” in Africa. When you eat it the main issue is not taste but texture. It’s not like eating sandpaper but it’s heading in that direction… tender sandpaper perhaps. The leaves are best boiled as are the calyces. After eating it can make some feel queezy. The seeds have polyunsaturated oil and are used as a cereal and in the production of soap (as is the oil of its cousin, cotton.)  Young sprouts are edible as micro-greens. While Caesar Weed is low on the food list it has a saving grace in that it’s a traditional medicine that has the support of science.

Extracts from either the roots or the leaves have broad antibacterial activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial isolates, and it is anti-fungal as well. I think some antioxidants were also found and one other extract was nearly as good aspirin. It is a good plant to know if push ever comes to shove and there are no pharmacies around. The roots are also diuretic and used for stomach aches (which eating too much of the cooked leaves can give you.)  Leaves are pasted and applied to skin problems. Medicine were made from fresh and dried parts.

Young leaves are famine food

The lobed leaves are covered especially on the bottom with “stellate trichomes” which are star-shaped plant hairs, which is probably why cattle, which have only lower teeth, won’t eat it.  The cocklebur seeds cling to their hair, however, so they help spread it around. The nutritional value of 100 grams of raw leaves is:  81.8 percent moisture, 54 cal, 3.2 g of protein, 0.1 g fat, 12.8 g carbohydrates, 1.8 g fiber, and 2.1 g ash, 558 mg calcium, and 67 mg of phosphorous per 100 g. When one cooks the leaves the resulting roan-colored water is tossed away. If you were an herbalist you might want to investigate that water. In some places that water is used as a tea for colds.

The Caesar Weed has bast fiber. The fiber strands are cream colored and lustrous. It’s grown mainly in the Congo area although some is raised in Brazil, India and the Phillippines.  It has the same uses as  jute and sometimes is used to make tea bags (you could have had some Caesar Weed and not known it.)  The fiber is obtained by retting, which is letting the plant partially rot in water.

Urena (you-RE-nah) is the Malaysian word for the plant and lobata (low-BAH-tuh) refers to the lobed leaves, after ear lobes. It is also sometimes called U. sinuata (there is a bit of disagreement if sinuata is a subspecies, a different species, or just another name for lobata.) Sinuata means bending or curving. In English we say “sinuous.”

Incidentally, even U. lobata’s common name refers obliquely to a plant characteristic and is something of a joke. “Caesar” mean’s “head of hair” and the plant is very hairy, something the bald Julius Caesar would have envied. Indeed, the Caesars were well-known for being very bald while their family name meant just the opposite.

Green Deane’s “Itemized” Plant Profile

IDENTIFICATION:

Shrub to 13 feet. Hairy stemmed, burdock-like seeds pods, small, five segments. The small pink five-petal blossoms usually  grow with a right twist or a left twist. Leaves 3 to 6 inches, oval with shallow lobes.

TIME OF YEAR:

Flowers nearly year round

ENVIRONMENT:

Moist soil, watered waste grounds, dry land with good rain, found in subtropic to tropic areas.

METHOD OF PREPARATION:

Young leaves, flowers, calyces, seeds, cooked, also flowers raw. Seeds used to thicken soup, porridge, A famine food, or an addition to the herb pot when foraging is scarce. It can make some queezy. Better used as a medicinal herb.

HERB BLURB

Broad antibacterial activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial isolates, anti-fungal, contains antioxidants, has aspirin like uses. Roots used for stomach aches and are diuretic. Leaves are pasted and applied to skin problems.

It is used to make tea for colds and flowers as an expectorant for “dry and inveterate coughs”.  In South America it provides a sedative and in Brazil a root and stem decoction is a treatment for colic.  Also used in Chinese medicine to treat kidney failure.

Crushed flowers, with salt, are applied to boils. Decoction of roots are taken by children with fevers. A decoction of roots, with those of Sida rhombifolia, is taken for stomachache and coughs. Leaves are used in aromatic steam bath for fevers and decoction of leaves is applied to skin rashes. The root is also used as a poultice to reduce swellings.

Decoction of the leaf is taken twice daily to reduce blood pressure; and also is taken before sleep to relieve rheumatic pain and body ache. The leaves are used as tea against sore throats and oral erosion, while leaves are good to treat urinary troubles and dysentery.

Chrysobalanus icaco: Multi-Colored Fruit

Coco-plums are three quarters patriotic: They can be red, white, or blue ( and yellow.)

Actually, the “blue” is deep purple and the yellow more a cream. Trees near the shore tend to have light colored fruit that is round whereas a variation inland tends to be oval and red to dark purple.

White cocoplums can be pure white or have a pink blush

Look for the coco-plum in cypress swamps, low areas, tree islands, beaches, sand dunes, canals, riverside, oceanside thickets, hammocks, by lakes, ponds and in landscaping.  In reference to landscaping, don’t confuse it with the Natal Plum which also has an edible fruit but the Natal Plum is covered with intense thorns.

The Coco-plum has been introduced to tropical areas around the world.  In Florida it is found from the center of the state south. In the wild it grows up to 30 feet tall, but can be trained into a compact hedge as well.

Red coco plum, note round/oval leaves

Opinions vary on the value of the fruit. Some think the pulp tastes like astringent sweet cotton. I have always found it soft and sweet. Some will say the blue tastes great and the white tastes bad, where as I have found them to taste the same.  It’is made into jams and jellies. In Cuba it’s manipulated into a sweet preserve that’s served in Havana restaurants as a sobremesa or dessert. The large kernel removed from its shell is edible raw or cooked. Some think it has the faint flavor of almond. To me it tastes like granola. Many think the kernel is far better when the fruit and kernel are both pierced so the juice of the pulp is allowed to seep into the kernel.

The botanical name is Chrysobaloanus icaco (crease-oh-BAL-ah-nus eye-KAY-koh. In botanical accounts that haven’t a clue “Chrysobaloanus” is interpreted to mean “Golden Apple.”  In more informed but polite reports it is “golden acorn” which is getting closer to the truth. It really means “golden glans” (or the end of human penis.) Carl Linnaeus, the fellow who started giving plants scientific names, was the original dirty old man. The barnacle got the same name as well, Balanus. Icaco, the individual species name, is the modern version of Hicaco which was what the plant was originally called in Taino on the island of Hispaniola. It is said eye-KAY-koh, in the Roman, but  eye-KAH-koh is also common.

The oil in the kernel can be substituted for almond oil. The seed is about 21% oil by weight. In fact, the seeds can be strung on sticks and burned like a candle. The oil can also be used to make candles, soap, and axle grease. The kernels (and leaves) can also be used to make a black dye that helps fibers resist decay.

The Coco-plum has has many native medical uses (see Herb Blurb below.) The leaves and bark have been used to treat dysentery and diarrhea, diabetes, bladder problems and kidney issues. Tea from the leaves can make mice hypoglycemic.

With all that said, there is a second Coco-plum, Chrysobaloanus icaco var. pellocarpus (pel-oh-KAR-pus) meaning dark fruit with translucent spots.  The pellocarpus lives inland where it’s wet, and has smaller, dark purple fruit. New growth is reddish or yellow.

Green Deane’s “Itemized” Plant Profile

IDENTIFICATION:

Both a shrub to 30-foot tree, leaves alternate, egg-shaped though variable, indented at tip, 1.5 to 3 inches long, leathery, glossy, new growth can be yellow green or reddish. Flowers small and white, in clusters. Fruit white to yellow to red to purple, thin skinned.

TIME OF YEAR: Spring to fall but usually a large crop in late spring and another in late fall.

ENVIRONMENT: Mainland, keys, near the coast or hammocks, inland near bodies of fresh water

METHOD OF PREPARATION: Fruit and kernel raw and or cooked. Made into jelly, jam and syrup. Can be canned.

HERB BLURB

Chrysobalanus icaco; Plasmid pUC 9.1; Escherichia coli; Genotoxic potentiality of aquerous extract prepared from Chrysobalanus icaco L. leaves. .

Abstract:  Plants have been related to our lives, being used as medicine, regardless of scientific evidence of side effects. This work analyses the toxicological effects of Chrysobalanus icaco L. aqueous extract, used in different pathologies. It was studied through: (i) alteration of plasmid pUC 9.1 topology; (ii) survival of bacterial strains submitted, or not, to previous treatment with SnCl2; (iii) transformation efficiency of E. coli strain by the treatment with the plasmid pUC 9.1. In (i), the treatment of the plasmid resulted in DNA single-strand breaks (SSB). A decrease of the lethal effect induced by SnCl2 in presence of the extract was found, while no C. icaco bacterial survival reduction was observed. The transformation efficiency of the plasmid was also reduced. Results suggest that the extract could present a potential genotoxic effect, as demonstrated either by the induction of SSB in plasmid or in transformation efficiency experiments. Finally, it presents an antioxidant action.

Chrysobalanus icaco L. extract for antiangiogenic potential observation. Alves De Paulo S, Teruszkin Balassiano I, Henriques Silva N, Oliveira Castilho R, Coelho Kaplan MA, Currie Cabral M, da Costa Carvalho MG. Instituto de Biofisica Carlos Chagas Filho, Laboratorio de Controle da Expressao Genica, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Centro de Ciencias da Saude, Bloco C, Cidade Universitaria, CEP 21949-900, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.

Angiogenesis is an important process in several physiological situations and it is also implicated in the development of some diseases such as diabetes and cancer. This study investigated the antiangiogenic potential of Chrysobalanus icaco methanol extract in the chicken embrionary tissue. Clinical trials for cancer treatment using drugs based on this mechanism are already in progress. Chorioallantoic membrane model (CAM) of chicken embryos, with C. icaco methanol extract in plastic diskes was used. The results showed an average of 44% angiogenesis inhibition in CAM areas with the plant extract compared to the controls. The data indicate that C. icaco methanol extract reduce the formation of new blood vessels in chicken chorioallantoic membrane.

Anredera cordifolia: Pest or Food Crop?

The Madeira Vine is a love/hate relationship. You will either hate it — as many land owners and governments do — or you will love it for it is a prolific source of food.

Anredera cordifolia's edible leaves, cooked

Apparently far more valued in the past than the present, the plant has quite a history. Anredera cordifolia is native to the dryer areas of South America such as Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, southern Brazil and southern Argentina. It got to the United States soon after the country was founded, or the early 1800s. It was in England by 1835 and was introduced into southern Europe where it is naturalized from Portugal to Serbia. In the United States is naturalized from Florida to Texas. It’s also found in the southern half of California and in Hawaii. In South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Hawaii it is a serious “invasive weed.” Australia (New South Wales) spends hundreds of thousands of dollars every year to fight it.  (Historical note: It was often planted outside of latrines in Australia because it was thought the leaves had a laxative effect.)

Record of intentional cultivation might go back to 1821 in Florida but we aren’t sure because two plants were called the same thing. The Rev. Jedidiah Morse of Charleston Ma. then New Haven Cn., set out in 1820 to survey Indian tribes in the United States. Writing about the St. John’s River in Florida and its border lands on 15 July of that year he said:

Air bubils are not edible, but roots are, cooked

“These light lands are not suitable for Indian corn. The best produces scarcely twenty bushels per acre. Indigo, cotton, madder, sugar cane, the mulberry tree, the date, the olive, the pomegranate, the almond, the Madeira vine, the coffee tree, beyond the twenty seventh degree, the lemon, and above all, the orange trees, thrive well, on choosing suitable soil and exposure.” (page 148, report to the Secretary of War of the United States on Indian Affairs.)

The problem is we really don’t know what Morse was referring to. In his day the common grape vine was also called the Madeira Vine, so was it an Anredera he saw or a Vitis (grape?) Natives in Florida did grow grapes, especially some escaped cultivars left over from much earlier Spanish inhabitations.  However, grape production from escaped or wild grapes in Florida is iffy. Their fruiting is sporadic, often skipping many years, plus there were wild grapes growing without any tending. Cultivating a fast growing starchy root crop like the Madeira Vine, however, makes sense.

Anredera cordifolia in blossom, note flowers droop

As the plant is subtropical it will survive only a light frost. From its roots it will grow some 130 feet a year, with an occasional growth spurt of three feet a week.  It can have lateral stems up to 65 feet long.  The vine does not have tendrils but it climbs by twisting (at eye level) lower left to upper right, the so-called Z-twist. It is interesting that most edibles climb that way whereas most toxics climb lower right to upper left, the S- twist. The Madeira Vine has long drooping flower spikes covered with tiny white blossoms (looks like their common name of Lamb’s Tails.) Their aroma ranges from apple-ish to almond-ish. One of the main identifying characteristics is large prolific clusters of tiny bulbils (sometimes called “tubers) in the air. Plant them and the new crop takes off, or spreads wildly, depending upon your view.

Not only are the underground roots (actually rhizomes) edible but the evergreen leaves as well. They are bright, shiny green on top, lighter green underneath, no hair, short petioles, about five inches long, waxy, roughly heart-shaped. The small bulbils are not edible but have been used medicinally to reduce inflammation, improve ulcers and protect the liver. They might also increase nitric oxide to the brain (see herb blurb below.)

Anredera leptostachys' blossoms point up

Anredera (ah-REE-der-uh or an-RED-er-uh) is thought to come from the Spanish word Enredadra, which refers to any twining or climbing weed. Cordifolia (chord-dee-FOAL-lia) means heart-shaped leaves) As to why it is called the Madeira Vine is also unknown. One author, Edwin Menninger in his 1970 publication Flowering Vines of The World, suggest the plant first went to the island of Madeira and then back to the northern New World.  There are about 12 different species of Anredera, many of them edible, and is related to Malabar Spinach, a garden vegetables in warmer climates. Incidentally the Island of Madeira is called said because in Portuguese it means “wood” from the Latin “materia.”  This is because the island was once heavily wooded. That;s also where we get the word “material.”

Lastly, if you’re in southern Florida or Texas and come across a Madeira Vine with up-turned flower spikes and no ariel tubers you have A. leptostachys (syn A. vesicaria) aka Cuban Ivy. It’s edibility is similar to the Madeira Vine as is the A. baselloides. In fact, the Madeira vine is sometime mistakenly called

[stextbox id=”custom” caption=”Green Deane’s “Itemized” Plant Profile”]

IDENTIFICATION: Hairless perennial creeper, fleshy rhizome, bright green, alternate, fleshy/waxy heart-shaped leaves with reddish-brown stems. Small fragrant, cream flowers in slender drooping spikes. Tubers produced underground, bulbils on stems.

TIME OF YEAR: Depends upon location, mid-spring in Florida, summer to fall in some areas, January to May in others.

ENVIRONMENT: Edges of forest, rocky places, coastal areas, hammocks, prefers warm, moist fertile soils.

METHOD OF PREPARATION: Leaves cooked and used like spinach. Underground roots cooked, baked preferable. Can be eaten raw but the texture is gooey. Above ground bulbils (tubers) are medicinal.[/stextbox]

HERB BLURB

APeptides. 2007 Jun;28(6):1311-6. Epub 2007 Apr 27.

Ancordin, the major rhizome protein of madeira-vine, with trypsin inhibitory and stimulatory activities in nitric oxide productions. Chuang MT, Lin YS, Hou WC. St. Martin De Porres Hospital, Chiayi 600, Taiwan.

Anredera cordifolia (Ten.) Steenis, or the synonymous name of Boussingaultia baselloides or Boussingaultia gracilis var. pseudobaselloides, is a South American species of ornamental succulent vine, commonly known as the madeira-vine. The fresh leaves of madeira-vine are frequently used as vegetables. A. cordifolia is an evergreen climber that grows from fleshy rhizomes. The rhizome contained one major (23kDa) protein band under non-reducing condition in the SDS-PAGE. The first 15 amino acids in the N-terminal region of the major protein band (23kDa), named tentatively ancordin, were KDDLLVLDIGGNPVV which were highly homologous to sequences of winged bean seed protein ws-1, Medicago truncatula proteinase inhibitor, soybean trypsin inhibitor, and sporamin. By using activity stains, the ancordin showed trypsin inhibitory activity in the SDS-PAGE gel which was found not only in rhizomes but also in aerial tubers, but few in fresh leaves. The crude extracts from rhizomes of madeira-vine were directly loaded onto trypsin-Sepharose 4B affinity column. After washing with 100mM Tris-HCl buffer (pH 7.9) containing 100mM NaCl, the ancordin was eluted directly by 0.2M KC1-HC1 buffer (pH 2.0). In calculation, the purified protein exhibited 0.0428mug trypsin inhibition/mug ancordin (corresponding to 0.53 unit of TPCK-treated trypsin inhibited/mug ancordin). The purified ancordin was used to evaluate the nitric oxide productions in RAW264.7 cells in the presence of polymyxin B (poly B, 50microg/ml) to eliminate the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) contaminations. It was found that ancordin (1.25-5microg/ml) could dose-dependently (R=0.954) stimulate the nitric oxide (NO) productions (expressed as nitrite concentrations) in RAW264.7 cells without significant cytotoxicity, and kept the similar effects in NO production in 6.25microg/ml ancordin.

AnAntinociceptive effects of the tubercles of Anredera leptostachys

M. P. Tornos, M. T. Sáenzhttp, M. D. García and M. A. Fernández

Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, C/ Profesor García Gonzalez s/n, 41012- Seville, Spain

The tubercles of Anredera leptostachys are used as an antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory in the popular medicine of the Caribbean basin. In the present work, the anti-nociceptive and central nervous system depressant (CNS) effects of the methanolic extract from the tubercles of A. leptostachys have been evaluated. The antinociceptive activity was assayed in several experimental models in mice: acetic acid, formalin and hot plate tests. The methanolic extract (250 and 500 mg/kg) significantly and in a dose-dependent manner reduced the nociception induced by the acetic acid (P<0.001). In the hot plate test, the extract significantly increased the latency time of jump although it slightly increased the licking time. The naloxone partially reversed the antinociception of the extract in the hot plate test. In the formalin test, the methanolic extract also significantly reduced the painful stimulus but the effect was not dose-dependent. In the study of the CNS-depressant effects, the extract was found to produce a significant reduction of the exploratory capacity with both doses assayed (P<0.001). The muscular relaxation only decreased with the higher doses assayed (P<0.001). The escape instinct was also significantly reduced (P<0.001) by the two doses of the extract and both were more effective than standard drugs morphine and diazepam.

Netted Pawpaw, photo by Angela Reigelman (MommaMiaX3)

Pawpaws (or papaws per Random House) can be among the most difficult wild fruits to find. They like to hide and woodland creatures like to eat them making it difficult for us. The easiest way to locate pawpaws is find them when they’re blossoming and they are blossoming locally now.

Unripe papaws

The most common place to spy pawpaws is and around pastures. Grazing livestock don’t eat the plants, blossoms or fruit. Look for bushy shrubs around five feet tall with magnolia-like cream-colored blossoms, or much smaller foot-size shrubs with dark ruby blossoms.

I can remember the first time I found a pawpaw. It was along a walking trail in Longwood, FL. At first I thought I had found a lumpy green pear but it was an unripe pawpaw. Interestingly pawpaws change greatly from hot Florida to the Smoky Mountain area. There, pawpaws are small trees.

There are two caveats: A chemical in pawpaws is still used to control head lice. And some people have a severe allergic reaction when eating them which is the prime reason they have not become a commercial fruit. That is, it’s not a significant health threat to the population at large but it is enough to give the lawyers fits. To read more about pawpaws, or papaws, click here.

?I am often asked: Can you eat grass. The simple question has a complex answer: Yes, no, maybe.

Strictly speaking we eat a lot of grass, but in the form of grain: Wheat, rice, rye, barley, millet et cetera. What most folks want to know is can you eat the culms and blades (stems and leaves.) What you just saw is also one of the impediments to learning about grasses, an argot all their own, a worse specific vocabulary than even mushrooms, and often identifying characteristics can only be seen with a dissecting microscope.

Crowfoot Grass

Humans are not multi-gastric (or in theory large-gutted). We aren’t designed to break down the cellulose in grass. Cows have a four-chambered stomach for that purpose, horses have a huge large intestine, even the gorilla has a gut that can accommodate large amounts of vegetation. We don’t. However, what we can do is dry the grass, grind it into a powder and use it as a bulking agent in food, such as breads, soups and stews. We don’t get much nutrition from grass prepared that way but it does add to the sensation of satiety and reduces hunger. Then there is the issue of cyanide.

I have read that all North American grasses are non-toxic. At the most basic level the means one has to know if the grass is native, which also requires identification, and I’ve already mentioned that group of plants can be a pain in the grass to identify. “Natives” would also include a lot species in the Andropogon family which I have never heard of having any use except perhaps making brooms. And some grasses have cyanide in them. Johnson Grass, a sorghum, is a good example. The large blades are full of it. Crowfoot Grass is another. We eat the grain of the latter but only after the plant has turned brown and the seeds are easily picked. Quite a few toxic grasses from Africa and Asia are naturalized in North America.

Personally I stick to a few grains, Sand Spurs, Barnyard Grass, and some Panicums. But then there is Timothy.

Timothy, prime livertock grass

Permit me a reminisce: I recently bought another book for my foraging library, A Guide to Florida Grasses, by Walter Kingsley Taylor, not the first book in my collection from this august author. I will say more about the book in newsletters to come. I spent a wedding afternoon recently browsing through the guide and noted his entry on Timothy Grass. The picture alone erased more than 50 years and took me back to summers as a boy when I was impressed into service to harvest hay for our livestock, most of it Timothy, Phleum pratense, a grass originally from Europe. We “hayed” nearly ever summer for some 20 years, usually putting into the barn ten to 15 tons of loose hay. (There is some irony in that most of the hay we got every year came from the Hayward Farm.)

The main machine for cutting this hay was a horse-drawn sickle mower. Instead of two horses the tongue was extended four feet and was pulled by a stripped-down WWII Jeep, which I got to drive. As soon as I was old enough to reach the pedals I drove and Dad operated the mower.  By the time I was legally old enough to get a driver license I had already driven thousands of miles in hayfields and across country roads. Most of my annual summer “vacation” was spent haying and driving.

The problems of haying became common. The cutter bar would break a tooth, a triangle-shaped replaceable cutting edge held on by rivets, which we replaced red hot from our own forge. At least once a season, more depending upon how thick the grass was, the piston arm would break, as it was intended to do. It was a piece of ash, called a pitman, that pushed the mower blade back and fourth being moved by gears turned by the wheels of the mower. When stresses got too much the wooden piston would break saving the rest of the machine from damage. Two other problems were common.

Sicklebar Cutter

Often the cut hay would wrap around each of the Jeep’s drive shafts, build up like a wad of cotton candy, get hot and catch on fire, not far from the gas tank. This required quick stopping, crawling under the hot vehicle, putting out the fire, then removing the tightly wound hay, often, ironically, with a blow torch. The other issue, beside unpredicted rain, was ground hornets. The Jeep, pulling the mower, would run over a ground hornets’ nest — at least one per field. They were never pleased about that. The hornets would instantly swarm under the Jeep, then emerge between the back of the jeep and the mower where they would find both of us and attack. It was an excuse to change gears and drive like hell…

Father and son scything hay

In places where the terrain was too wet or hilly my father, who was built like a heavy-weight boxer and did box, would take out a scythe and cut it by hand. He had two grim reaper scythes. One with a long thin blade for hay and one with a short thick blade for brush. Once the hay was cut and sun dried we would winnow it with a Jeep-adapted horse-drawn rake. Then it was loaded loose onto a hay wagon I would drive home.  As the hay was lifted into the barn — a hay fork pulled by the Jeep which my mother drove — my job on those oh-so-hot summer nights was to go up in the high rafters of the barn with 100 pounds of salt for each ton of hay. As each forkful of hay was dumped into the barn I salted it to absorb any moisture thus preventing it from rotting, getting hot and starting a fire. And then… then throughout the winter I had to shovel and cart the recycled hay to the manure pile. No wonder I was a skinny kid.

A modern “Ben Franklin”

And all the time — driving or shoveling — I had a stem of Timothy Grass in my mouth, chewing away enjoying the mild sweetness. It is a grass I would dry, powder, and use. Being a farm kid and chomping on Timothy was part of the same existence. It’s one grass that I know beyond any doubt. Timothy was unintentionally introduced to North America in 1711 by one John Herd. He called it “herd grass.” Clever. He talked it up and it was grown in southern Canada, New England area and New York. In 1720 a Timothy Hanson moved from New England to Baltimore and began to cultivate the seed and sell it.  He was the first person in the new world who grew, bagged and sold hay seed. George Washington and Benjamin Franklin were admirers of the grass and Franklin is credited with calling it “Timothy Seed.” The name was shortened to Timothy and it stuck. It is found nearly everywhere in North America, and even in Greenland. I sometimes wonder what my youth would have been like — and adulthood — had Messers Herd, Hanson and Franklin not known good grass when they saw, ah, tasted it.

Recently added articles on EatTheWeeds.com: Sida, Wireweed; False Roselle; Edible Flowers: Part Eighteen; Gout Weed.

 ? Don’t even consider trying to eat the blossom of the Salvia coccinea, the Scarlet Sage. While it blossoms year round it is responding to the warm weather with wonderful displays of scarlet red blossoms. While they look like they would be wonderful additions to a salad they can put you in the hospital. The Scarlet Sage is one good reason why I am opposed to “field testing.”

Field Testing Can Be Dangerous

One year I, too, thought the blossom might be a good salad edition. I researched the species extensively. It was a native, exported around the world for 400 years, had no reports of toxicity, had one medicinal report, and came from a good family, the sages. I decided to field test the plant, under very controlled conditions. That’s means I had researched the plant very well, knew exactly what I was doing, was NOT in an emergency situation, had good health insurance and a hospital nearby. Those are the only acceptable conditions, in my opinion, for “field testing.”

Thus I began the field testing in stages. On the appropriate day of the schedule I ate a piece of the red blossom that was 1/8 of an inch square, which as exact as I could get with my exacto blade and the delicate blossom. Forty minutes later my head spun and my stomach cramped and I was ill for three weeks. I was close to going-to-the-emergency room ill within the hour. By day two I was just sick. Pepto Bismo calmed the stomach and Coca-cola syrup (both from the pharmacy) controlled the nausea. For three weeks I consumed little but Pepto Bismo and Coca-cola syrup.

Imagine if I were not intentionally testing the plant under optimum conditions? What if it had been an emergency, and I was responsible for others, and I took it upon myself to “field test’ an unknown plant as, unfortunately, far too many “survival” books recommend. I would have been out of commission, useless, of no help to any one exactly when needed the most. And if you “field test” the wrong plant you could be more than just sick. The next time someone starts to teach you the “field testing” method ask one question: What plant do you eat now that you discovered by field testing? The answer is always “none.” Then ask: “have you actually ever field tested a plant?” The answer is usually “no.” A lot of folks are teaching something they have never done. I turned down a lucrative fee to go to a convention and teach “field testing.”  I don’t think “field testing” should be done in the field. Just the opposite; if ever it should be done under very controlled conditions after a lot of research and with medical facilities near by. In other words, rarely, if ever. There is a picture of the non-edible Salvia cocinnea here. Let’s just say: Don’t go there.

A wisteria raceme, note short stems on the blossoms

Botany Builder #15: A Spike and a Raceme are similar inflorescences but they have a distinct difference. An inflorescence is a flowering system that has more than one blossom. A dandelion is NOT an inflorescence. A cherry blossom which has many flowers is an inflorescence. Both a Raceme and the Spike have multiple blossoms along a stem. However, the Raceme blossoms have short stems (petioles) that attach to the main stem. The wisteria has a Raceme. Blossoms on a spike attach to the main stem directly. They do not have short stems (petioles.) The common gladious is a spike, and a rather large one.

A gladiolus spike

Its blossoms, left, attach to the main stem directly. The blossoms do not have short stems. Note on both the Raceme and the Spike older flowers are larger than the newer flowers which are near the end. Usually ripening of the fruit or seed on both also proceeds from nearest the plant towards the end away from the plant. Both glads and wisteria blossoms are edible. To read about glads click here, to read about wisteria click here.

Herbal Conference Reminder: Scheduled for the 23-25 of March, I will be there and many other teachers. Mention Eat The Weeds and you get a 20% discount. To register, or learn more, visit www.FloridaHerbalConference.org. There are benefits to being involved. March is a wonderful time for plants and people in Florida.

Upcoming Classes: Saturday, March 24, Jervey Gantt Recreation Complex, 2390 SE 36th Ave., Ocala, 9 a.m.

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